High renaissance Essay Example for Free

High renaissance Essay This is the period in the art history which connotes the culmination of the art of the early renaissance between 1480 and 1527. It was one of the greatest outbursts of creativity in the art history. It has been described as the period in which there were convergences of wealth of talents concentrating in the same area. The early renaissance focused on the artists in Florence, but the high renaissance centered on the artists in Rome due to increased patronage by the then pope Julius 11. During this period, these artists possess their tools and facilities which make their works better than what has been done before. The high renaissance came to an end after about 40 years of existence when Raphael: one of the prominent artists, died in 1520, coupled with the sack of Rome in 1527. Three of the greatest ever artists were credited for this period in history. They were called the big three; they are Leonard da Vinci, Rapheal Sanzio, and Michelangelo Buonarroti Artist that contributed to high renaissance 1] Leonard da Vinci; his painting titled the last supper (1490) was said to have started the high renaissance . He lived between 1452 and 1519. His work Vitruvian Man was also part of his contribution during this time. 2] Michelangelo Buonarroti; he lived between 1475 and 1564. His painting in the Vatican and the painting title Delphia Sibyl created much impart during this period. He also did The Creation of Adam during this period. 3] Raphael Sanzio; his painting which is also in the Vatican and the painting titled ‘Saint George struggling with the dragon’ made him an exceptional artist during this time. He lived between 1483 and 1520. 4] Fra Bartolommeo; his painting which he did in 1515 title ‘Annunciation with the Saint’ make him well known. He lived between 1472 and 1517. 5] Marcantonio Raimondi; he lived between 1475 and 1534, his work the ‘Judgment of Paris made him exceptionally good during this time. REFERENCE: The High Renaissance; http://www. artcyclopedia. com/history/high-renaissance. html Shelley Esaak (2008) The High Renaissance in Italy http://arthistory. about. com/cs/arthistory10one/a/high_

Social Gradient In Health Health And Social Care Essay

Social Gradient In Health Health And Social Care Essay The current world is explicitly divided into developed world characterized by having ultra-modern technological advancement, most efficient communication system, better health care and income opportunities and under developed region with completely opposite scenarios. This huge inequality among the countries depicted in huge differences in health and wellbeing of the populations.. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there is a 36 years variation between the life expectancy among the countries. The life expectancy of Malawi is only 47 years while in case of Japan it is 83 years. WHO has declared that there is no biological or genetic reason for [the] alarming differences in health and life opportunity. The unequal scenario of health status, however, not only persists between countries, but also evident within countries, and surprisingly almost all countries irrespective of rich or poor. There is a distinct differentiation in the health status among people of different so cio-economic status (SES). Generally, people with higher SES tend to have better health than that of lower SES (Whitehall Study). That is health status is directly related to social status. This fact is referred to as the social gradient in health ( Kosteniuk and Dickinson, 2003). Since health inequalities are evident despite significant improvement in overall health of the populace, it has become the pivotal agenda in the health policy planning and management. Social Gradient in Health The social gradient in heath refers to the fact that inequalities in population health status are related to inequalities in social status (Kosteniuk and Dickinson, 2003).The poorest of the poor, around the world, have the worst health. Within countries, the evidence shows that in general the lower an individuals socioeconomic position the worse their health. There is a social gradient in health that runs from top to bottom of the socioeconomic spectrum. This is a global phenomenon, seen in low, middle and high income countries. The social gradient in health means that health inequities affect everyone. Health inequities, in particular, are avoidable inequalities in health between groups of people within countries and between countries. These inequities arise from inequalities within and between societies (WHO). Below are some examples of health inequities between and within countries extracted from WHO: the infant mortality rate (the risk of a baby dying between birth and one year of age) is 2 per 1000 live births in Iceland and over 120 per 1000 live births in Mozambique; the lifetime risk of maternal death during or shortly after pregnancy is only 1 in 17 400 in Sweden but it is 1 in 8 in Afghanistan. Examples of health inequities within countries: in Bolivia, babies born to women with no education have infant mortality greater than 100 per 1000 live births, while the infant mortality rate of babies born to mothers with at least secondary education is under 40 per 1000; life expectancy at birth among indigenous Australians is substantially lower (59.4 for males and 64.8 for females) than that of non-indigenous Australians (76.6 and 82.0, respectively); life expectancy at birth for men in the Calton neighbourhood of Glasgow is 54 years, 28 years less than that of men in Lenzie, a few kilometres away; the prevalence of long-term disabilities among European men aged 80+ years is 58.8% among the lower educated versus 40.2% among the higher educated. Measurement of Social Gradient SES is generally categorized based on income, academic qualification, social position, occupation, etc. Each of these components is very associated with themselves. For example, better education tends to lead better job which again associated with better income. In UK, two classifications exist. The Registrar-Generals Social Classes were introduced in 1913 and were renamed in 1990 as Social Class based on Occupation. The classes are: Professional occupations (Class I), Managerial and technical occupations (Class II), Skilled non-manual occupations (Class IIIN), Skilled manual occupations (Class IIIM), Partly-skilled occupations (Class IV), and Unskilled occupations (Class V). Office for National Statistics on the other hand classified social classes into eight categories. Table 1 depicts this classification. Table 1: Social classification of the Office for National Statistics Class Description 1 Higher managerial, administrative and professional occupations 1.1Â  Large employers and higher managerial and administrative occupations 1.2Â  Higher professional occupations 2 Lower managerial, administrative and professional occupations 3 Intermediate occupations 4 Small employers and own account workers 5 Lower supervisory and technical occupations 6 Semi-routine occupations 7 Routine occupations 8 Never worked and long-term unemployed Based on the two above social classification outcome variables (i.e., mortality and life expectancy) are analyzed. Results showed that those who belong to the upper social class tend to have better health in terms of less mortality rate and higher life expectancy than that of the lower class inhabitants. That is health status follows a social gradient. Current Scenario: UK The figure 1 below depicts differences in male life expectancy within a small area in London. Travelling from Westminster, every two tube stops represent one year of life expectancy lost. C:UsersazharDocumentsAcademicTheories Perspective of HPliteraturevital referencesD-Tube Map on LE 2004-08.jpg Although life expectancy has increased in all London boroughs since 2000, there has been a widening in the gap between the boroughs with the highest and the lowest life expectancy. In 1999-2001, this gap was 5.4 years for men and 4.2 years for women. In 2006-2008, the gap had increased to 9.2 years for men and 8.5 years for women (ONS data sources). Regarding different social class mortality rate also varies significantly. From the data of the figure 2, we can see that mortality rate per 100,000 people increased to almost double from class I to class VII. This is a graph showing age-standardised mortality rate by NS-SEC: men aged 25-64, England and Wales 2001-03Figure 2: Age-standardised mortality rate by NS-SEC: men aged 25-64, England and Wales 2001-03 Explanations for Inequalities In order to explain why these inequalities exist, a number of explanations have been offered. These are briefly explained below: Artefact The relationship between social class and health is probably an artefact of measurement systems used to determine social class as well as health status. Mortality ratios calculated on basis of number of deaths per social class divided by number from each class determined by census returns may be inaccurate reporting of social class. However, this explanation can be questioned in way that inequalities have been demonstrated using a number of different systems of measurement of social class. For example, occupation, property ownership, educational status and access to social resources. Nonetheless, still there is room for improvement in the measurement system by which classification and health status are determined. Downward drift (Darwinian selection) Based on the Darwins assumption, this explanation suggests that the illness will slide down the social class while the healthier people will have a greater chance of social advancement. However, the fact that many health problems only seen in adulthood, often once career choices have been made and social class has been determined. Now, if illness causes downward shift then the explanation of healthy rise class is less likely be true. Cultural explanations Health damaging behaviours are differentially distributed across social classes and contribute to observed gradients. This suggests that the lower social classes prefer less healthy lifestyles, eat more fatty foods, smoke more and exercise less than the middle and upper classes. Using the Canadian National Population Health (NPH) Survey (1994-1995) data of 7720 men and 9269 women 15 to over 80 years of age, (Kosteniuk and Dickinson, 2003) found higher household income, being retired, and aging are associated with better physical health and lower mental distress when accounting for their role in lowering stressor levels and bolstering control, self-esteem, social support, and social involvement. This evidence can partly be of supportive with the cultural explanations. However, more investigation is needed why this variation in behaviour of different social class. The material explanation Physical and psychosocial features associated with the class structure influence health and contribute to observed gradients. This indicates that poverty, poor housing conditions, lack of resources in health and educational provision as well as higher risk occupations for the poor determines the gradient in health. No doubt poverty impacts negatively in the health outcomes. However, only improving materialistic access might not lead better health and less social gradient. Consider the example of Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. Having around double income per person than that of Bangladesh in last decade, India and Pakistan left behind in almost all the health indicators (see Figure 3). Life expectancy at birth increase for Bangladesh is 17% while the figures for India and Pakistan are 12% and 6.56% respectively. In case of infant (age Figure 3: Health and income status of Bangladesh, India Pakistan from 1990 to 2011 (extracted from The Economist, 3rd November 2012) Social class is a complex construct that may involve status, wealth, culture, background and employment. It would therefore be naive to look for a simple causal relationship between class and ill health. Each individual will experience a number of different influences on their health, some of which also come under the umbrella of social class. Actions to combat social gradient in health Marmots review (2010) noted The implications of the social gradient in health are profound. It is tempting to focus limited resources on those in most need. Although social gradients in health affecting almost everyone, interventions however are very crucial for people in need most. But so far the policy, programmes and interventions aiming to reduce social gradient in health mounted a lot and itself create problems for the root level personnel. A report from the Audit Commission says there has been too much policy and accompanying guidance issued by central government for people working in the field to keep up with. It is also critical that trusts and local authorities have often faced conflicting demands from central government and calls for a more consistent and lasting set of policy statements to aid implementation on the ground. We are unlikely to be able to eliminate the social gradient in health completely, but it is possible to have a shallower social gradient in health and wellbeing than is currently the case for England. This is evidenced by the fact that there is a steeper socioeconomic gradient in health in some regions than in others, as shown in Figure 2. To reduce the steepness of the social gradient in health, actions must be universal, but with a scale and intensity that is proportionate to the level of disadvantage. We call this proportionate universalism. Greater intensity of action is likely to be needed for those with greater social and economic disadvantage, but focusing solely on the most disadvantaged will not reduce the health gradient, and will only tackle a small part of the problem. Potential area of intervention: Unhealthy behaviour Potential target group: group at in risk Conclusion Unhealthy behaviour Smoking Poor Diet Less physical activity Alcoholism Determinants of health In todays debates, the determinants of health include all the major non-genetic and non-biological influences on health. The term therefore covers individual risk factors, such as smoking, and what are often called wider determinants (Hilary Graham* and Michael P Kelly, Health inequalities: concepts, frameworks and policy) Smoking is responsible for one in six deaths in the UK. It is overall the one area where behavioural change would make the greatest impact on health inequalities. A clear divide remains in smoking levels between manual and non-manual groups, and there are also significant differences between different ethnicities and genders. Over 40% of Bangladeshi men smoke, compared to around 5% of Bangladeshi women, and more than one in four women of Irish descent are smokers. Smoking is the largest recognised cause of premature death and disability, and is responsible for about one in six deaths (over 100,000 in total) every year in the UK. Smoking prevalence has fallen dramatically in the most affluent sectors of society over the past 30 years, but much less so among the most disadvantaged. Women who smoke during pregnancy are more likely to have babies born prematurely, twice as likely to have low birth weight babies and up to three times more likely to die from sudden unexpected death in infancy (SUDI). Low birth weight babies experience increased risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Long-term smokers bear the heaviest burden of death and disease related to their smoking and is disproportionately drawn from lower socio-economic groups. Smokers in poorer social groups tend to have started smoking at an earlier age: 31% of smokers in managerial and professional households started before they were 16, compared with 45% of those in routine and manual households. Obesity and its risks are not experienced equally across society, in some cases this is related to particular behaviours. There is evidence that people whose ethnic background is Pakistani or Bangladeshi are much less likely to engage in high levels of physical exercise. There are marked differences in satisfaction with primary care services. People from black and minority ethnic groups report significantly worse access than white British people. Performance on access is worst for people from Pakistani and Bangladeshi backgrounds: their satisfaction with their level of access is 10-20 percentage points below that reported by people from white British backgrounds. It is clear that more needs to be done to address the needs of people with disabilities. Compared with people without disabilities, they are more likely to live in poverty, less likely to have educational qualifications, more likely to be economically inactive, more likely to experience problems with hate crime or harassment, and more likely to experience problems with housing and transport. These correlations appear to work in both directions: people are also more likely to become disabled if they have a low income, are out of work or have low educational qualifications. Stroke is the single largest cause of disability in England.1 Approximately half of those who survive a stroke will be left with long-term disability problems six months afterwards and will be dependent on others. People with disabilities often experience multiple forms of labour market disadvantage: more than 40% of people with disabilities are low-skilled; around 25% of those of working age are over 50; and around 10% are from black and minority ethnic groups. One study2 has estimated that people with learning disabilities or long-term mental health problems are 58% more likely to die before age 50 than non-disabled people. And studies of psychiatric patients in hospitals show that up to 70% smoke. Access to care services has been reported as an issue. Around a quarter (24%) of deaf or hearing-impaired people miss care appointments, and 19% miss more than five appointments, because of poor communication. Two-fifths (40%) of visually impaired people believe that their GPs are not fully aware of their needs, rising to 60% for other surgery staff. Disabled people are also four times more likely than the general population to find their dentists surgery inaccessible. Stigma and shame are barriers to the engagement and employment of people with mental illness. Negative media images add to this discrimination. Only 21% of people with long-term mental illness are employed, the lowest proportion of any disabled group. People with severe mental illness are 1.5 times more likely to die prematurely than others, often from preventable causes, and they are also less likely to access routine health checks. There are also differences in alcohol related deaths. There are now around 23,260 deaths related to alcohol every year in England. Every man dying of alcohol-related causes loses on average 21 years of life, and every woman loses 15 years. The prevalence of disability increases rapidly with age. Approximately 75% of men and women aged 85 and over are disabled. Alcohol is a particular problem in the mid years. Around 26% of adults in England are drinking at hazardous, harmful or dependent levels. The largest increase in the number of NHS alcohol-related hospital admissions is in the 35-49 age group. These include admissions where alcoholic liver disease, the toxic effect of alcohol or mental and behavioural disorder due to alcohol are identified as the primary or secondary diagnosis. The social pattern of problem drinking is complex, but more disadvantaged communities have higher levels of mortality, hospital admission, crime, absence from work, school exclusions, teenage pregnancy and road traffic accidents due to alcohol consumption. Within localities, the most disadvantaged individuals typically unemployed, low-income older smokers have 4 to 15 times greater alcohol-specific mortality and 4 to 10 times greater alcohol-specific admission to hospital than the most affluent. Alcohol has a serious effect on behaviour and relationships in the home, affecting the mental health and behaviour of children of alcohol-misusing parents.15 Furthermore, harmful drinking is linked to psychiatric morbidity including depression, and around a third of incidents of domestic violence are linked to alcohol misuse. Around one million children live in families where at least one parent misuses alcohol, and by the age of 15 young people in families with a parent who drinks at harmful levels have rates of psychiatric disorder that are between 2.2 and 3.9 times higher than those of other young people.16 Since the mid-1990s, newly diagnosed cases of HIV have been increasing. Increased testing will have contributed in part to this, and also enables earlier intervention. Men who have sex with men continue to be disproportionately affected. By 2006, men having sex with men accounted for up to three-quarters of UK-acquired HIV infections, and they remain the behavioural group at greatest risk of acquiring HIV in the UK. An estimated 31% of men having sex with men aged 15-59 were unaware of their infection in 2006. Among HIV-infected men having sex with men, diagnosed late are 14 times more likely to die within one year of diagnosis than those diagnosedearlier.17

Preparation and Delivery of Nursing Oral Presentation

Preparation and Delivery of Nursing Oral Presentation A Reflective Commentary on the Preparation and Delivery of the Oral Presentation The presentation undertaken focussed on an eighty-year-old Asian female who spoke extremely limited English. Therefore any communication barriers needed to be addressed and this was achieved by asking the family to interpret. She is an obese individual who has a Body Mass Index of 30. She has type 2 diabetes mellitus, a right-sided chronic lower leg ulcer and arthritis affecting both knees. Her glucose levels are high because of her nutritionally poor diet. After consultation with the required health professional team she was advised about healthy eating that was culturally and religiously appropriate. Her wound was managed with guidance from the tissue viability nurse and her pain level was assessed and addressed. This assignment will provide a reflective appraisal of the preparation and delivery of the oral presentation mentioned above. When commencing a reflective learning task it is important to understand the concept of reflection and the values of the reflective process, especially pertaining to nursing practice. There are many varied and valid interpretations of reflective learning; however, it is suggested that reflection is the contemplation of an event or activity that leads to professional knowledge enhancement and if needed, purposeful change to practice (Wilkinson, 1999, p36). It can be said that one of the main values of reflective learning is that it can bridge the perceived gap between theory and practice by informing and extending students thinking in classroom and clinical situations. Reflective learning can also promote critical self-awareness and cultivate an inquiring attitude to both learning and practice. It is suggested that reflective learning enhances critical thinking through discussion, research of others’ professional opinions and use of appropriate literature. Finally, reflective learning skills when applied to practice can help in improving care by reflecting on what has been undertaken, why it was undertaken a certain way and how could care have been improved (O’Regan and Fawcett, 2006, p60, Johns, 2001, p237). It can be said therefore that reflective learning is thinking critically about an experience and learning from it. It is argued that it is often students and newly qualified nurses that are asked to become reflective practitioners. Debatably however, for the best care and clinical outcomes even expert nurses and clinical managers should undertake reflective practice. As mentioned the presentation focussed on the care given to an elderly obese Asian female who has type 2 diabetes mellitus and has a chronic leg ulcer. Before designing the presentation I felt that the key to a successful presentation was to prepare well. Jones (2003, p96) proposes that â€Å"effective presentation can be defined as the ability to communicate a message to an audience in a way that results in a change in understanding or opinion†. Hadfield-Law (2001, p1208) suggests that when preparing effectively for a presentation you should â€Å"begin with a purpose†. Therefore, I posed the question â€Å"what am I aiming to accomplish and achieve in my presentation.† The intention of this presentation was to convey to the audience the nursing care given and the clinical effectiveness of care, alongside the prioritisation of my patient’s individual care needs. It was important that the presentation also expressed the holistic nature of the care undertak en. One of the key strengths of this presentation was the preparation undertaken before designing it using PowerPoint. However, this was extremely time consuming, but I felt that having a plan of action was imperative to success. Preparing for the presentation included research into how effective presentations are planned and an action plan of the material that I wanted to use. Although there was a lot of material that could have been used in the presentation, I decided to use the most relevant information to get my message across. The presentation was ten minutes in length and there was only enough time to convey the main, relevant points. Having said this, keeping the presentation simple and interesting would have helped to capture the audiences’ attention. The main points to be conveyed were placed on PowerPoint as this gave the presentation a more professional impression. It is important to note however that the use of visual aids such as PowerPoint slides should aid the presentation and not distract from it (Hadfield-Law, 2001, p1210). The structure of the presentation included an introduction, the main text of the talk and a conclusion. The introduction attempted to communicate to the audience a profile of the patient and the care needed. The conclusion was expressed in a way that clearly conveyed the message that I wanted to get across. Another major strength of this presentation was that of time management both in the preparation and delivery of the presentation. I managed to undertake the presentation within the allotted time period. This is imperative as people expect you to keep to your allotted time. If you overrun there is a possibility of people becoming restless and consequently not concentrating on what is being said. Going over the time limit also shows poor preparation, planning and rehearsal. I found delivering the presentation immensely stressful and my anxiety levels were extremely elevated. I felt that control of my anxiety could be worked on for future presentations. However, I consider that one of my main strengths when delivering this presentation was that I felt that my body language conveyed professionalism and knowledge of subject. Writing this reflective commentary on my oral presentation has been difficult because of a number of factors. The lack of feedback has meant that I can only relay my views on how the presentation was received and not the views of the audience. Having reflected on the content of my presentation I wondered if I focussed on the patient enough, as her clinical care, personal, psychological and social needs were the focal point of this presentation. I felt that I excessively discussed the involvement of other the health professionals, clinical symptoms and clinical care given, thereby demonstrating the holistic nature of the care undertaken to the detriment of discussing my patients needs more fully. Again, feedback on my presentation would have enabled me to assess and critically analyse this point. The main learning outcome of this assignment was the realisation of the importance of health professionals working together as a team for the benefit of the patient. Secondly, I acknowledged the effect of giving proper advice on guiding the patient to care for herself. Thirdly, I understood the significance of using appropriate language in communicating with the patient to promote understanding of the situation. Fourthly, I realised the importance of family involvement in the patient’s care. The learning outcomes of the presentation were that of the importance of preparation, planning and rehearsing in order to achieve success and to help reduce stress and anxiety. I have also observed that presentation skills are very useful skills for nurses to learn. It is suggested that these skills can be used to share practice knowledge, influence colleagues and are essential skills for job interviews (Hadfield-Law, 2001, p1208). The process of reflecting has implications for my future nursing practice. The ability to reflect on the hows, whys and ifs of situations and experiences allows decisions and emotions to be examined for the benefit of both the patient and the health professional. The development of these skills will enable me to analyse decisions in the planning and delivery of care so that any risks have been successfully eliminated. It is suggested that reflective practices either in a classroom situation or in a clinical setting should be undertaken as part of everyday practice and as part of continuous professional development (Wilkinson, 1999, p40). Having said that however, questioning every act to be carried out or already undertaken could lead to uncertainty and low professional self-esteem. So it is suggested that it is important to know when to stop reflecting and when to take action. In conclusion, reflective learning promotes critical self-awareness enabling thought to precede action such that care is improved for the patient. The ability to critically review past actions is key to the learning process. Reflective learning is a useful skill to develop in a work setting and has potential benefits in the planning and delivery of clinical care. Careful preparation is vital for a successful presentation and a clear idea of the aim of the presentation at the outset is essential to the planning process. Attention to the timing of the presentation is required in order to ensure the relevance of the material and to meet audience expectations. Feedback is a useful tool to improve performance and its absence limits the scope for improvement. Bibliography Hadfield-Law L (2001) Presentation skills for nurses: how to prepare more effectively. British Journal of Nursing. 10, 18, 1208-1211. Johns C (2001) Reflective practice: revealing the heart of caring. International Journal of Nursing Practice. 7, 4, 237-245. Jones J (2003) Well presented. Nursing Standard. April 2, 17, 29, 96. O’Regan H and Fawcett T (2006) Learning to nurse: reflections on bathing a patient. Nursing Standard. 20, 46, 60-64. Wilkinson J (1999) Implementing reflective practice. Nursing Standard. 13, 21, 36-40.

Julius Caesar - Mark Antony Essay -- essays research papers

Mark Antony, in the play The Tragedy of Julius Caesar, was a brave, intelligent, pleasure-loving, and cunning man. He was loyal to his friend, Caesar, whom he considered a true friend. He looked at life as a game in which he had a signified part to play, and played that part with excellent refinement and skill. Antony was devoted and preferred to be dependent upon Julius Caesar since he rather have enjoyed life than to claim the highest position in the government. He wanted the crown to be given to Caesar so that all conflicts could be avoided. However, this additional power contributed to the conspirator's motive to assassinate him. Antony was distraught with Caesar's death and sought revenge first by speaking to the crowd in his speech. He showed how clever and cunning he could be when he convinced the crowd at Caesar's funeral ceremony to side with him and not with the murderers. The people became excited and rowdy when he teased them about the will, waving it in the air and pretending as if he was not going to read it. Reverse psychology is used when he first pretends to respect the conspirators calling them honorable men, and then slowly proving that they are not. He speaks out against them because he wanted power for himself, and unlike Brutus, he is politically ambitious and so belie ves that if he can take control while the state is in turmoil, he will remain in power. He was alone in making this oration, yet he was confidant in himself and courageous. Rome began...

Lowering Testing Standards in Third World Countries Essay -- HIV AIDS

Lowering Testing Standards in Third World Countries ABSTRACT: Recently, Sidney Wolfe, director of Public Citizen’s Health Research Group (PCHRG), charged the National Institute of Health (NIH) and Center for Disease Control (CDC) with sponsoring fifteen immoral HIV studies in sub-Saharan Africa. The trials are being conducted to determine if certain alternate medical procedures or a short course of treatment with AZT, zidovudine or other drugs prevent some mother-child HIV transmissions. (1) Since the control group receives only placebos rather than AZT, Wolfe claims that the tests give suboptimal treatment that will result in more children contracting HIV and AIDS. (2) Public Citizen’s Health Research Group and others are calling for an immediate cessation of these important experiments. Public Citizen raises an important moral question. (3) Is it morally permissible to lower testing standards for the Third World? Unlike PCHRG, I contend that the answer to this question is yes, if the trials meet certain conditions. I e xplain both the First Best and Second Best Method (FBM and SBM, respectively) of testing new drugs and then compare the two. Next, I show the FBM’s impracticality in developing countries releases researchers from the moral obligation to use it. I then propose a new set of criteria — the Second Best Criteria (SBC) — that show if a test is moral or not. Finally, I argue that imposing a developed country’s moral standards for clinical trials in the Third World is immorally insensitive to the needs and conditions present in the latter area. Section 1 In clinical trials there are two different standard protocols for testing new drugs. The First Best Method tests the effects of a known drug (a benchmark), rathe... ...Biotechnology, vol. 11, pp. 135-143. Pederson, Daniel and Eric Larson, "Too Poor to Treat" Newsweek, 28 July 1997, p. 60. Rath, Richard, "Horton Hears the W.H.O." Dissonance, AIDS and Africa Resource page, 3 June 1996, http:/www.way.net/dissonance/nyrb_ltr.html, pp. 1-3. UNAIDS "HIV/AIDS: The Global Epidemic", Press Release, 28 November 1996, http:/www.us.unaids.org/highband/document/epidemic/situat96.html, pp. 1-15. —— "HIV/AIDS epidemiology in sub-Saharan Africa", 3 July 1997, http:/www.hiv.unaids.org/unaids/press/factafr.htm, pp. 1-3. —— "UNAIDS Announces New Clinical Trials for the Prevention of Mother-To-Child Transmission of HIV", Press Release, 9 July 1996, http:/www.hiv.unaids.org/unaids/press/mtctpren.html, pp. 1-2 No Author Listed: "AIDS in Africa", The Guide, 9 May 1996, http://www.guidemag.com/newsslant/aids.africa.html. pp.1-2

Globalisation and the Coca-Cola Company Essay

Today, Coca-Cola is one of most well-known brands in the world. This company has continued to gain momentum and growth, capitalizing on the rapidly expanding beverage industry and ranking as the largest beverage company in the world. With its push for global market share, Coca-Cola now operates in over 200 countries with over 84,000 suppliers. Currently, over 70% of Coca Cola’s business income is generated from non-US sources (Coca-Cola Company, 2012). In over a century, Coca-Cola has grown the company into a multi-million dollar business. However, the road to success has not always been easy for Coca-Cola. Many countries have banned the use of Coca-Cola products, claiming that these products are â€Å"threatening public health† and â€Å"encouraging obesity.† Many labor practice suits have been filed against the mega beverage company with accusations of â€Å"child labor sweatshops† and â€Å"discrimination in providing health care benefits to workers.† In addition, the beverage industry has been flooded with competitors introducing new soft drink products, such as Pepsi, along with soft drink alternatives, such as Gatorade, bottled water, fruit juice, and energy drinks. Coca-Cola has faced the challenge by introducing new beverage brands including Sprite, Fanta, Minute Maid, Simply Orange, Fresca, Vitamin Water, Smart Water, Odwalla, and Powerade. In light of the obstacles Coca-Cola has overcome, the company has remained true to its commitment to provide quality, refreshing, and satisfying products to consumers. In order to ensure each product tastes the same across the globe, Coca-Cola continues to keep the beverage recipes secret with tightly controlled manufacturing facilities. CocaCola has never lost sight of its goal to be the best beverage company in the world. Now, let us take a closer look at Coca Cola’s journey to globalization. Coca-Cola’s Journey to Globalization Founded back in the 1880’s, Coca-Cola was developed by John Pemberton as an American iconic brand known for high quality and consistency. During this period in history, storekeepers demanded pre-packaged products with brand name recognition. Coca-Cola met these demands with its iconic red and white logo and brand marketing to instill confidence in the consumer that the Coca-Cola product would taste the same everywhere it was purchased. These strategies soon became the foundation for CocaCola’s plan to expand globally. In the early 1900’s, Coca-Cola started to globalize. Bottling plants were initially built in Cuba and Panama as the US military spread to these regions, causing a rise in demand for the Coca-Cola brand. These plants proved to be successful, reducing shipping and delivery costs typical in these regions. Soon after, additional bottling plants opened in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. These efforts launched Coca-Cola’s Saylor URL: www.saylor.org/bus208#2.5.6 The Saylor Foundation investment in testing foreign markets for future expansion opportunities. By 1926, CocaCola had established foreign relationships and plants around the world in support of its newly created center of global operations. Coca-Cola continued on its path of mass production and rapid expansion for the next several decades. Local branches along with local partnerships to produce and distribute the signature Coca-Cola products were established throughout the world. The ending of World War II and the Cold War marked the signature period in which Coca-Cola had established itself as a true global corporation known for its efficiency and worldwide capabilities. Next, let us take a look at three key strategies employed by Coca-Cola to support rapid growth and expansion across the globe: global marketing strategies, product differentiation, and technology. Global Marketing Strategies Coca-Cola’s marketing strategies played a significant role in successfully globalizing the company. The company’s popular advertising slogans and catchy jingles played into the hearts and minds of people around the world. Some of the most remembered advertising slogans include: Coupled with these slogans, songs were used to have consumers remember the brand. One of the company’s most popular jingles was known as â€Å"I want to buy the world a coke,† produced in 1971 by Billy Davis. The commercial featuring this song portrayed a world of hope and love produced by a group of multicultural teenagers on top of a hill. This commercial went down in history as one of the most well-known commercials of all time. In addition to Coca-Cola’s advertising efforts, Coca-Cola became the first commercial sponsor of the Olympic Games in Amsterdam in 1928. Coca-Cola continues to be an Olympic Games sponsor today. Coca-Cola has also sponsored many other sporting events such as the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA), National Hockey League (NHL), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football Association (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), NASCAR, and Cricket World Cup. Saylor URL: www.saylor.org/bus208#2.5.6 Product Differentiation Another key factor that has supported Coca Cola’s globalization vision is the company’s ability to customize the product to meet the needs and wants of individual markets. For example, Coca-Cola has been able to tailor its product line to meet the needs of the younger consumer by offering Powerade and flavored Coke products, such as Cherry Coke and Vanilla Coke. Additionally, the company is meeting the needs of the health conscious, older consumer with Diet Coke, Vitamin Water, and Odwalla products. CocaCola has invested significant time and money into researching and understanding different marketing segments based on lifestyle, age, and income in order to accurately develop and market its products. Packaging differentiation has also played a key role in how adaptable the Coca-Cola product is to various market segments. Functional packaging has been used to make the products available in different sizes and forms, including glass and plastic bottles, aluminum cans, and fountain drink dispensers. The company considers various shapes and sizes of the bottles and cans to ensure easy stacking and vending machine dispensing. To promote the company’s commitment to environmental sustainability, all packaging materials are designed to be recyclable and labeled accordingly for easy consumer identification. Technology Technology advances contributed to Coca-Cola’s ability to globalize rapidly throughout the 20th century. Product transportation became more efficient and cost effective with the development of bigger and faster semi-trucks, cargo ships, jet aircraft, and trains. Coca-Cola was able to manufacture and ship products quicker and farther to market segments that were unreachable before these transportation improvements. In addition, technology advances became the driving force behind the ease and speed at which information was available. Distributors and warehouses were able to more accurately track inventory levels and fill order shipments, resulting in lower overall operating costs. Computerization also led to slashed product costs and improved efficiencies. Computerized and automated manufacturing equipment increased the speed and volume in which products were produced. These technological advances enabled Coca Cola to compete on a global scale, selling the well-known brand of products across the world at competitive prices. Summary: Coca-Cola is one of the most well-known brands in the world, operating in over 200 countries. While the global marketplace has presented numerous opportunities for CocaCola, the company has also encountered global attacks on the nutritional value of its products, along with unfair labor practice accusations. Saylor URL: www.saylor.org/bus208#2.5.6 The Saylor Foundation Founded in 1880, Coca-Cola began its journey toward becoming the world’s best and largest beverage company. Coca-Cola’s American iconic logo, brand recognition, convenient packaging, and consistent product manufacturing became the foundation for the company’s plan to expand globally. A pioneer in globalization, Coca-Cola began expanding bottling and manufacturing facilities back in the early 1900’s, establishing key foreign partnerships. Coca-Cola’s marketing strategies, including memorable advertising slogans, catchy jingles, and sporting event sponsorships, played a significant role in winning the hearts and minds of consumers globally. Product differentiation, such as offering different beverages in flexible packaging options, allowed Coca-Cola to customize the product for different market segments. Technology advances, including product transportation, telecommunication, and computerization, became the driving force behind Coca-Cola’s ability to capitalize on the rapidly expanding marketplace across the globe. References: Coca-Cola Company (2012). Wikinvest. Retrieved December 11, 2012. http://www.wikinvest.com/stock/Coca-Cola_Company_(KO)

Book Critique on ‘Suicide’ Essay

Book Critique on ‘Suicide’ by Emile Durkheim Nearly a century ago, the French sociologist Emile Durkheim became interested in the phenomenon of suicide. Why, he asked, do people kill themselves? In his day, the common answer to such a question is: the suicidal person is depressed or mentally ill or has suffered an unbearable loss. An alternative philosophical answer is also presented: an individual commits suicide because it is part of his nature. But Durkheim was not satisfied with these explanations. He thought it likely that forces within society influenced people’s decision to kill oneself was never simply personal. Durkheim wanted to provide a sociological answer to the phenomenon of suicide. To find out whether his ideas were correct, Durkheim considered the explanations for suicide that were common in his day and systematically assembled the evidence for each. As his sources, Durkheim used government records that listed numbers of suicides and gave information about the people involved – their age, sex, race, religion, marital status. Upon analyzing this material, Durkheim saw that the usual explanations for suicide were contradicted by the evidence. There was a general variance of suicide rates across countries and time. Durkheim argued, â€Å"If suicide is considered a personal issue, why is there so much variation? † (Durkheim, 1897/1951:17). If suicide were related to mental illness, Durkheim would have found relatively stable proportions of suicide and mental illness within social groups. Durkheim found the opposite: some groups shared high rates of mental illness but little suicide; other groups shared high rates of both. Durkheim found that women were more likely to be diagnosed a mentally ill, but had less chances of committing suicide. Other contradictory information surfaced: Durkheim discovered that most people committed suicide during warmer periods of the year, not, as might be expected, during the cold days of winter. These initial findings forced Durkheim to conclude that suicide is determined by social forces; that is, forces external to the individual. Durkheim said, â€Å"suicide is based on social causes and is itself a collective phenomenon† (Durkheim, 1897/1951:145). Characteristics of the social group in which people find themselves make suicide more or less likely; self-destruction is not simply a private act. In analyzing his information, Durkheim looked for specific social conditions under which suicide occurred the most and least often. Here were some of his findings: 1) Protestants committed suicide three times more than Catholics and Catholics more than Jews; 2) Single people committed suicide more often than married people, and married people with children least often of all; 3) And, suicide rates are higher when people feel few or weak ties to a social group or community. The Jewish community was more tightly knit than the Catholic, the Catholic more tightly knit than the Protestant. Married individuals, especially those with children, had stronger social bonds than single people. After identifying the general cause of high suicide rates, Durkheim classified suicide into three types: 1) egoistic suicide, 2) altruistic suicide, and 3) anomic suicide. Individuals with few or weak ties to a community are likely to commit egoistic suicide, or suicide related to social isolation and individualism. The opposite of egoistic suicide is called altruistic suicide. Here individuals whose ties to their particular groups are so strong that their commit suicide for the good of the group. Durkheim also saw that suicide rates increased when there were sharp economic upturns, and decrease when there was economic stability. When times are stable, people feel better integrated into the social fabric and committed to social norms. When times are stressful, the resulting state of anomie leads people to commit anomic suicide. At the end of his research, Durkheim argued that ‘sociology is a legitimate field of study’ (Durkheim, 1897/1951). This statement is founded on two striking facts. First, he showed that suicide tendencies can be explained by social facts; that is, empirical statements with no psychological or philosophical implications. In essence, sociology is a field of study independent from psychology and philosophy. And second, social explanations about specific phenomenon are never inferior from other types of explanations. In essence, social explanations are sufficient to explain contradictory social facts, since the latter depends on the former for empirical validity. General Critique There are several criticisms on Durkheim’s research on suicide. Here are some of the criticisms: 1) Durkheim defined suicide as referring to ‘all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result’ (Durkheim, 1897/1951:44). By positive act, Durkheim meant such things as jumping off a bridge or shooting oneself. By negative act, he meant such things such as not taking necessary medicine or not getting out of the way of a moving vehicle. When Durkheim developed the concept of altruistic suicide, he himself committed a violation of his own operational definition. This violation constituted a flaw in his research. Given his data, it is almost impossible or difficult to find instances of altruistic suicide. One can infer that the inclusion of this type of suicide was the result of ‘overzealous inference’ from data; 2) Some sociologists argued that Durkheim was able to delineate the difference between personal issues and public problems. This is not entirely true. Durkheim never gave operational definitions to both personal issue and public problem. Durkheim only assumed that personal issues are issues peculiar to personal events; public issues are issues salient to the interests of a given social group. In a sense, it was Mills, not Durkheim, who formalized the distinction between personal issues and public problems; 3) Durkheim also ignored one important factor in his analysis of suicide: the political context of the late1890s. Durkheim argued that economic upheavals increased suicide rates, economic stability decreased suicide rate. If one closely analyzed the context of the late 1890s, one can perceive that it was not economic crisis (ups and downs of the economy) that determined suicide rates; rather it was the stability of political structures. The more stable the political structure, the more stable is the market. Hence, there are fewer tendencies for individuals to commit suicide. Conclusion Although these criticisms were significant in many respects, they are insufficient to demolish Durkheim’s theory of social facts. For one, Durkheim successfully defended the integrity of sociology as a field of study. And second, his analysis of suicide rates cannot be proved to be incomplete or faulty. His definition of suicide may be shaky, but the implication of such is of no theoretical importance. Hence, Durkheim’s study on suicide rates is sociologically acceptable. Reference Durkheim, Emile. 1897/1951. Suicide: A Study of Sociology. J. A. Spaulding and G. Simpson. New York: Free Press.